The author describes problems facing Armenia in reorganization of the structure of science in the post-socialist era with the aim of utilizing limited state resources more efficiently by reducing the number of separate scientific institutes, concentrating on essential core subjects required by the nation and encouraging all other projects to compete in the international arena for grant sponsorship.

The anti-realist argument from underconsideration focuses on the fact that, when scientists evaluate theories, they only ever consider a subset of the theories that can account for the available data. As a result, when scientists judge one theory to be superior to competitor theories, they are not warranted in drawing the conclusion that the superior theory is likely true with respect to what it says about unobservable entities and processes. I defend the argument from underconsideration from the objections of Peter (...) Lipton. I argue that the inconsistency that Lipton claims to find in the argument vanishes once we understand what the anti-realist means when she claims that scientists are reliable. I also argue that collapsing the distinction between relative and absolute evaluations, as Lipton recommends, has its costs. Finally, I briefly examine Richard Boyd's influential defence of realism. (shrink)

I evaluate the extent to which we could learn something about how we should be conducting collaborative research in science from the research on groupthink. I argue that Solomon has set us in the wrong direction, failing to recognize that the consensus in scientific specialties is not the result of deliberation. But the attention to the structure of problem-solving that has emerged in the groupthink research conducted by psychologists can help us see when deliberation could lead to problems for a (...) research team. I argue that whenever we need to generate alternative solutions or proposals, groupthink is a genuine threat, and research teams would be wise to allow individuals opportunities to work alone. But the benefits of team work emerge when scientists seek to evaluate the various proposals generated, and determine a course of action. Then the group is less prone is groupthink, and the interaction of group members can be an epistemic asset. (shrink)

I present a history of Kuhn’s discovery of paradigms, one that takes account of the complexity of the discovery process. Rather than emerging fully formed in Structure , the concept paradigm emerged through a series of phases. Early criticism of Structure revealed that the role of paradigms was unclear. It was only as Kuhn responded to criticism that he finally articulated a precise understanding of the concept paradigm. In a series of publications in the 1970s, he settled on a conception (...) of a paradigm as a concrete exemplar that functions as a guide to future research. (shrink)

I examine the citation patterns to a revolutionary scientific paper, Hess’ “History of Ocean Basins”, which played a significant role in the plate tectonics revolution in the geosciences. I test two predictions made by the geoscientist Menard (in Science: growth and change. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1971): (1) that the peak year of citations for Hess’ article will be 1968; and (2) that the rate of citations to the article will then reach some lower level, continuing on accumulating citations at (...) some regular but unimpressive rate. Drawing on data covering the period from 1962 to 2019, I show that Menard was close with respect to the first prediction. But I also show that things are less clear with respect to the second prediction. I explain why the data are less clear with respect to the second prediction. (shrink)

Social epistemology is a wide-ranging field of study concerned with investigating how various social factors, practices, and institutions affect our prospects of gaining and spreading knowledge. Philosophers working in social epistemology have focused on a range of topics, including trust and testimony, the effects of social location on knowing, and whether or not groups of people can have knowledge that is not reducible to the knowledge of the individual members of the group. Much of the work in social epistemology is (...) not concerned specifically with science and scientists but, rather, with knowing agents in general. This chapter will be concerned narrowly with the social epistemology of scientific knowledge. After a brief discussion of Thomas Kuhn's contribution to the social epistemology of science, the chapter addresses the following issues: the ideal epistemic community; collaboration and trust; social values and bias; and science policy and expertise. The chapter ends with a brief discussion of methodology in the social epistemology of science. (shrink)

I critically examine Rorty's social epistemology, specifically his claim that the end of inquiry is solidarity.

The article examines Thomas Kuhn's work in the history of science with special attention to its relevance to subsequent developments in social epistemology. The article begins with a discussion of Kuhn's historical work, and the so-called historical turn in philosophy of science. It then examines Kuhn's views on textbook science, followed by an analysis of Kuhn's views on the relationship between the history of science and the philosophy of science. Then it discusses Kuhn's contributions to our understanding of the social (...) dimensions of scientific inquiry. Finally, it discusses his influence on the social epistemology of science and the sociology of science. (shrink)

Background: Double degrees in nursing and midwifery have evolved in Australia as a proposed solution to possible impending shortages of qualified midwives in the healthcare workforce. The double degree is seen as a more acceptable option in non-metropolitan areas in particular. Concern has been expressed however, about dilution of midwifery philosophy and graduates opportunities in respect of future clinical practice. Aim: This study aimed to provide a better understanding of motivations and intentions of students who undertake the Bachelor of Nursing (...) Science/Bachelor of Midwifery double degree. Methods: A cross-sectional survey design was employed at four universities that offered double degrees in nursing and midwifery in three states of Australia. Students enrolled in first and fourth year of a double degree and graduates of a double degree were invited to complete an online survey comprised of Likertscales and items requiring free text responses. Quantitative data was analysed using SPSS and thematic analysis was used to analyse the qualitative data. Findings: Participants indicated a clear preference for midwifery as a career with this preference increasing for each cohort at each stage of study. Discussion: Primary reasons for selecting a double degree were perceived increased opportunity for employment and use of nursing skills to enhance midwifery practice in a population with growing co-morbidities. A strong identification with midwifery philosophy and identity was also demonstrated.Conclusion: An understanding of motivations and career intentions of students undertaking double degree studies can inform future program development and workforce planning. (shrink)

The phase field microelasticity theory of a three-dimensional, elastically anisotropic system of voids and cracks is proposed. The theory is based on the equation for the strain energy of the continuous elastically homogeneous body presented as a functional of the phase field, which is the effective stress-free strain. It is proved that the stress-free strain minimizing the strain energy of this homogeneous modulus body fully determines the elastic strain and displacement of the body with voids and/or cracks. The proposed phase (...) field integral equation describing the elasticity of an arbitrary system of voids and cracks is exact. The geometry and evolution of multiple voids and/or cracks are described by the phase field, which is the solution of the time-dependent Ginzburg-Landau equation. Other defects, such as dislocations and precipitates, are trivially integrated into this theory. The proposed model does not impose a priori constraints on possible void and crack configurations or their evolution paths. Examples of computations of elastic equilibrium of systems with voids and/or cracks and the evolution of cracks under applied stress are considered. (shrink)

This book provides a defence of epistemological relativism against its most powerful opponents.

Many lymphokine genes have now been cloned from activated T cells and their products have been expressed in mammalian cells. Use of these recombinant lymphokines has provided the opportunity to evaluate both the spectrum of their biological activities and the mechanisms of their action in promoting proliferation and differentiation of hemopoietic and lymphoid cells. Characterization of the structure of lymphokine genes will provide information about their regulated expression in T‐cell activation.

[4] Be-ʻinyene ḥodesh Elul ṿe-yeraḥ ha-etanim --.

We prove, among other things, that the number mentioned above cannot be shown to exist without using some $\Pi_1(\mathscr{P})$ instance of the axiom of replacement.

This collection by a distinguished group of philosophers, psychologists, and physiologists reflects an interdisciplinary approach to the central question of cognitive science: how do we model the mind? Among the topics explored are the relationships (theoretical, reductive, and explanatory) between philosophy, psychology, computer science, and physiology; what should be asked of models in science generally, and in cognitive science in particular; whether theoretical models must make essential reference to objects in the environment; whether there are human competences that are resistant, (...) in principle, to modelling; whether simulated thinking and intentionality are really thinking and intentionality; how semantics can be generated from syntactics; the meaning of the terms "representations" and "modelling;" whether the nature of the "hardware" matters; and whether computer models of humans are "dehumanizing." Contributors include Donald Davidson, Daniel C. Dennett, Margaret A. Boden, Adam Morton, Dennis Noble, T. Poggio, Colin Blakemore, K.V. Wilkes, P.N. Johnson-Laird, and Jonathan St. B.T. Evans. (shrink)

The birth rates per 1000 married females of specified ages and durations of marriage generally attained their post-war maxima in 19463000 and (b) the cumulative fertility up to 5 or 10 years of marriage duration of later cohorts was considerably higher (13–40% higher) than that of earlier cohorts. These facts, and similar ones for Australia covering a wider period (Basavarajappa, 1964), are thought to suggest that the total fertility of cohorts who have not yet completed their childbearing might not be (...) far outside the limits of 2500 and 3000. (shrink)

Book Information The Blackwell Guide to Philosophical Logic. Edited by Lou Goble. Blackwell Publishers. Oxford. 2001. Pp. x + 510. Paperback, £16.99.

Aydınlanma çoğu düşünürün eşitlik, özgürlük ve keyfi gücün kontrolü gibi ideallerle ilgilendikleri bir dönemdir. Bu düşünürler akıl sahibi ve ekonomik açıdan özgür “evrensel” bir insan öznesi yaratmaya çalıştılar. Bu çalışma günümüzde hâkim olan toplumsal cinsiyet rollerinin ve kalıp yargıların köklerini tanımak adına, önemli bir geçiş dönemi olan Aydınlanma’nın cinsiyet anlayışının bir araştırmasını yapmayı amaçlamakta, bu ideallere ulaşıp ulaşamadığını sorgulamaktadır. Evrensel bir insan öznesinin kadınları kapsayıp kapsamadığını irdelemektedir. Çalışmada öncelikle Aydınlanmanın temel kavramsal çerçevesine yer verilmiş, daha sonra dönemin cinsiyetler arasındaki farklılıkları (...) tanımlama çabaları ortaya konulmuştur. Bu çabaların evrensel insanlık doğasını vurgulayan fikirlere uymadığına dikkat çekilmiştir. “Doğa”, “akıl” ve “erdem” gibi kavramlarla ilişkilendirilen dönemin cinsiyet tartışmaları; kadını doğasının zayıflığı, akli melekelerinin noksanlığı ve erdemin taşıyıcısı olarak ele almış ve bu iddialarını bilimsel açıklamalarla meşrulaştırma çabaları etrafında şekillenmiştir. Bu da Aydınlanma’nın kadınların konumu konusunda başarısız olmasına ve tartışmaların kısır bir döngüde kalmasına sebep olmuştur. Ancak çalışmada yine aynı Aydınlanma’nın kadınları cinsiyetin kısıtlayıcı tanımından kurtarmak için nasıl bir pratik sergilediği ve gücün yeniden şekillendirilmesinde hangi katkıları sunduğu da ortaya konulmuştur. Aydınlanma’nın çelişkilerini fark eden Mary Wollstonecraft aydınlanma ideallerinin kadınları kapsayıp kapsamadığı sorgulamaları ile aydınlanmanın fikirsel olarak feminizme zemin hazırlayan yönünü temsil etmektedir. Özetle Aydınlanma’nın kendisini insanlığın ilerlemesinde bir aşama olarak tasavvur etme ve meşrulaştırma yolundaki derin kararsızlıklarına işaret eden çalışma, onun hak iddialarını uygulanabilir evrensel norm ve ilkelere dayandırıp dayandıramadığını sorgulamakta ve bu noktada başarısız olduğunu iddia etmektedir. Ancak aynı zamanda Aydınlanma’nın kadının uyanış sürecindeki ateşleyici rolüne ve günümüz feminizminin bu sürecin tarihsel tezahürü olduğuna işaret edilmektedir. (shrink)